Study Guide
General Biology 101    FINAL EXAM

*I am learning a new web editor "on the fly" so please bear with the odd numbering and changes. Many of you wanted this info so I have cobbled together something from past classes. This is a very rough draft, and offered with my apologies.

This list is only a study guide, not a complete list of all the material on the test.  Please bring questions to office hours:  4234 LSB 10:30 – 12:00.  You should also use the study guides from Exams 1-3 as a source of review questions.

WHAT DO I STUDY?  Remember, I test on your understanding of major concepts, not trivia.  Make sure when you review your chapter outlines and end of the chapter questions that you are focusing on the major concepts.  These are usually the ones stressed in the online outline in Vista.

Community Ecology

1.      What is a species? What is a community?  How is it different from an ecosystem?  What is the biosphere?  What is ecology?

2.      What is the difference between the morphological and biological species concepts?

3.      What is co-evolution?  Can you think of an example?  If two species interact, how could a change in one affect the other?  What kinds of interactions between species (see #67) can cause co-evolution?  (Use your imagination, and think through examples.)

4.      What is a habitat?  How is it different from a niche?  Give examples of each.  Would your dorm room be a habitat or a niche?  What about all your daily activities—habitat or niche?

5.      Explain the difference between a fundamental niche and a realized niche.  Remember the barnacle example from class.  (How does the niche of a pet cat or dog change when its human owners are present?  What limitations are imposed that change its activities?  Relate this to fundamental and realized niches.)

6.      Know the types of interactions between species (neutral interaction, competition, etc.), and whether each species benefits, is harmed, or is unaffected.

7.      What is competitive exclusion?  What is resource partitioning?  Which of these allows species to coexist in the same area?  What happens to the number of individuals present in two competing species?  Why is competition always more intense WITHIN a single species than BETWEEN two different species?

8.      How do predator and prey populations affect each other?  Draw a graph that shows how the populations fluctuate in response to each other.  Give a few examples of how prey develops defenses (through co-evolution); explain mimicry, chemical defenses, physical defenses, and camouflage.

9.      Why are fruit trees and fruit-eating birds an example of mutualism?  What about coral polyps and zooxanthellae?  What is symbiosis?  Give examples of commensalism for plants AND animals.

10.  Why is it counter-productive for a parasite to kill its host?  (Explain how this could have evolved through natural selection…)

Ecosystem Ecology

11.  Consider the flow of energy and nutrients through an ecosystem.  Which one flows one-way only (energy or nutrients)?  Which one allows some recycling?  How do the Laws of Thermodynamics play in (Ch 5)?  What happens to energy in the end?

12.  Explain how to classify organisms based on the kind of food they eat.  Classify plants, carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, and decomposers as either consumers or producers.  What are autotrophs and heterotrophs? 

13.  Explain the trophic levels in an ecosystem.  Analyze Figure 36.10 (page 726).  Hint:  the green box indicates the producers.  The sandpiper and duck are primary and secondary consumers.  Why? 

14.  Why do most ecosystems only have 4-5 trophic levels?  Only 10% of the energy available at each level is passed along to the next level.  What happens to the other 90%? 

15.  Why are producers so important to an ecosystem?  Explain in terms of energy and nutrients.  Where do producers obtain energy and nutrients?  What about consumers?  How do decomposers help recycle nutrients?

16.  If the number of plants in an ecosystem were cut in half, the number of animals in that ecosystem would also decrease.  Why?  Explain in terms of ENERGY, as well as food.  Relate this to “primary productivity” in your book.

17.  Why could the Earth support more vegetarians than carnivores, at least in theory?  (Think about trophic levels and energy.)  If all humans became vegetarians, what kinds of species would we be competing with?  (Maybe our populations would decrease through competition…?)

Population Ecology

18.              Be able to define population, demographics, population size, population density, and age structure.  How are these terms interrelated?

19.              Know the differences between population, community, and ecosystem ecology.

20.              How do populations increase or decrease?  What is exponential growth?  Logistic growth?  How are exponential growth and logistic growth similar and dissimilar?  How does carrying capacity fit in?

21.              What is the difference between density dependent and density independent population controls?  Which one is more important to humans?  To large animals?  To plants?  To small animals like aphids?

22.              How do biologists monitor population size?  What is the method called and how does it work? (Also refer to your lab manual for this).

23.              What are the 3 main types of dispersion?  Which is most common?

24.              What is a life history pattern?  How does it affect survival rates?  How does the survival curve describe the relationship?  How do cohorts fit in?

25.              What is “ZPG”?  What reasons can you give why humans don’t behave like other populations do?

Human Impacts

26.        Why did we compare human populations to starling populations?  Why don’t humans experience limits on their population growth? 

27.        What are some of the practical applications of population ecology that we discussed in class?

28.        What is conservation biology? How is maintaining biodiversity important in conservation biology?  What are the major threats to biodiversity worldwide?  How can you reduce your role in supporting these threats?

29.        What are some of the ways we as humans impact our environment?

30.        Define the term pollutant.  How can it affect an ecosystem?  What is smog?  What it?  How is temperature inversion involved?  How does smog affect people and plants?

31.              What substances cause acid rain?  What effects does it have on the environment?

32.              Why is drinkable water so scarce, even though Earth has so many oceans?  Why can’t we just remove the salt?  What human activity consumes the largest portion of available water? 

33.              What are some problems with water treatment?  What kinds of substances can remain, and what effects do they have?  (Review your textbook, too.)

34.              Define deforestation and desertification.  Why do cleared forests make poor farms?  How does deforestation affect soil?  How might it affect climate and rainfall?

35.              What is eutrophication?  Describe how it can be caused by nitrates and phosphates in groundwater.  What are some sources of these compounds?  How does it harm community structure within lakes?

36.              What is fragmentation?  How does it impact ecosystems?  How does it impact biodiversity?

37.              Define global warming.  Know the processes and the products/reactants.  How will global warming affect the earth?

38.              Describe how ozone can be harmful at ground level (as smog) but helpful in the upper atmosphere (as the ozone layer).  Why is the ozone layer becoming thinner?  What chemicals are causing ozone destruction?  What negative effects will result from this?

39.              Why is it necessary to use fertilizers for sustained agriculture?  (Hint:  where do the nutrients go once they are incorporated into crops?  How does this change the nitrogen or phosphorus cycle?)

40.        The increasing concentration of DDT within higher levels of a food chain is an example of biological       magnification.  Explain how this happens.  Why do higher level carnivores have more DDT in their       systems?

41.  What is sustainable development?  Why is it important?  Why do we say increased technology has lead to major changes in the biosphere?  Is this a result of human populations?  Why?

42.  What are steps you can take to lessen your personal impact on the biosphere?

EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE

Scientific Methods & Modes of Reasoning

1.      What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?  Which method would you use to prove the Cell Theory?  Which method is used to apply that theory to specific organisms?  Why?

2.      Describe the steps used in the Scientific (Hypothetico-Deductive) Method.  Are there any repeated cycles involved?  What happens when a hypothesis is not supported by experimental results?

3.      What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?  How are they related?  What are the most important characteristics of a hypothesis?

4.      What factors should be kept in mind when designing an experiment?  Define control and variable, and describe their use.

Levels of Organization & Characteristics of Life

6.      What are the levels of organization in biology?  What order do they occur in?

7.      Can you think of examples at each level of biology, or find some in your book?

8.      What are the “characteristics of life” discussed in class?  Are there any others you can think of?  Do they apply to both animals and plants?

9.      Why do we discuss “characteristics” of life rather than a “definition” of life?

10. What is metabolism?  What do chemical reactions actually do to molecules?

11. What is homeostasis?

Chemical Elements & Types of Bonds

12. What are the most common chemical elements found in biological systems?  (Know what C, H, O, N, P, and S stand for.)  What trace elements also are needed?  (Name just a few.) 

13. Describe the differences and relationships between elements, atoms, and molecules.

Properties of Water

21. Why is water important?  What are some of its properties that help or affect living things?  Describe the causes and results of cohesion, capillary action, and temperature stability.  Which one was related to the “penny experiment” we did in class?

22. Why do hydrogen bonds make ice float?  How does that help pond creatures survive winter?

23. Why is water “polar”?  What does this have to do with hydrogen bonds?  How many hydrogen bonds can each water molecule form?

24. Describe the pH scale, and which values are acidic or basic.  What happens to the relative amounts of H+ and OH- at acidic or basic pH values?  What would “pH 3” really look like if you could see the atoms?  What are hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion? 

25. What is an acid?  What is a base?  How do they change the pH of water?  What is a buffer?

26. What kinds of substances will dissolve in water?  Define hydrophobic and hydrophilic.  Do hydrophobic molecules contain mostly polar or mostly nonpolar covalent bonds?  How does the polar nature of water help hydrophilic substances dissolve?

Molecules of Life

27. What four classes of “molecules of life” have we named (in addition to water)?  What general roles do proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids play? What is a polymer?  What is a monomer?  Give examples of each for carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins. 

29. What is a carbohydrate?  What is CH₂O?  Know the difference between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.  What are their roles in a cell or a living thing?

30. What properties do all lipids have in common?  What are their roles in a cell or a living thing?

31. How are fatty acids related to fats?  Describe the composition of “saturated” vs. “unsaturated” fats.  How is a phospholipid different from a fat?

32. What is the connection between cholesterol and steroids?

33. What is an amino acid?  How is it related to a protein?  What is an “R group”?

34. What is a nucleic acid?  What do the abbreviations “DNA” and “RNA” stand for?  What are the parts of a nucleotide?

35. What roles do hydrogen bonds play in polymers such as carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins?

Cell Structure and Function, and Membranes

36. Why don’t we find two ton predatory cells in nature?  Discuss the relationship between the surface area and volume of a cell when its size increases.  Why is surface area so vital to cell function?

37. What differences exist between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?  What similarities do they have?

38. Describe the organelles found in typical plant and animal cells.  What are their jobs?.

42. What is the First Law of Thermodynamics?  Explain how it relates to life on Earth.  Give some examples of usable and non-usable energy.  How are chemicals relevant? 

43. What is the Second Law of Thermodynamics?  Do living things obey this rule?  Explain.  Why do living things constantly need a supply of energy?  Where do they get it from?

44. What is an enzyme?  What characteristics do enzymes share?  How do they speed up chemical reactions (explain their effect on the activation energy barrier)?  How do enzymes help reactions occur, specifically?  (What do they do to their substrates?)

Cell Membranes and Transport

46. What is the “cytomembrane system?”  What role do vesicles play in it?  What is ER?  How is it related to the cytomembrane system? 

47. Describe the structure of a cell membrane.  What roles do lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates play?

48. How do substances cross a cell membrane?

49. Explain the difference(s) between osmosis and diffusion.  Can you describe each process in terms of molecules moving from high to low concentration?

50. What would happen to a cell placed in concentrated salt solution?  Why?  Hint:  what is the concentration of water like inside versus outside the cell?

DNA and Cellular Information

1.      Describe the structure of nucleotides.  Give the names and abbreviations of the nitrogenous bases.  What’s the difference between a purine and a pyrimidine base? 

2.      Who were Griffith, Hershey, Chase, Watson, Crick, and Franklin?  Why are their contributions important to our understanding of DNA?  What did they do?  Why do scientists say that the structure of DNA gave the first good clue as to how DNA is copied?

3.      Describe the structure of DNA.  How are hydrogen bonds involved?  How many molecules (or “strands”) are needed to make a molecule of DNA?  How do they pair with each other?  Discuss the orientation of the strands, as well as the pairing between bases.

4.      How is DNA replicated?  Where is it replicated? What are the steps?  What do 5’ and 3’ represent?  Where is RNA stored?

5.      What are the differences between RNA and DNA?  How does the cell make copies of either molecule? Know the similarities and differences between DNA and RNA.

6.      What enzymes are involved in DNA replication?  What do they do?

7.      Describe what happens to “old” DNA as it is copied.  Where does it end up?

Cell Cycle

8.                  Describe the stages of the cell cycle, in order.  What happens during G1, S, and G2?

9.                  Why is cell division needed?  Does it occur with the same timing in all cell types?

10.             For many years only two parts of the cell cycle recognized:  mitosis and interphase.  Explain why.

11.             When does the cell perform metabolic work for the body?  Which part of the cell cycle is this?

12.             How is cancer related to the cell cycle?  How are cancer cells different from normal cells?  Why are they harmful?  (Consider metabolism, tumors, and metastasis.)

13.             Explain the difference between cytoplasmic division and nuclear division.

Mitosis and Meiosis

14.             Describe the structure of a chromosome.  Compare a duplicated versus unduplicated chromosome.  What is a centromere?  How are DNA replication and sister chromatids related?  Explain the difference between a sister chromatid and a homologous chromosome. 

15.             How many chromosomes do humans have?  Does this make us haploid or diploid?  Explain.  What is “chromosome number”?  Where do the pairs of chromosomes we carry originally come from?

16.             Discuss the phases of mitosis.  What are their names?  What noticeable events occur in each phase?  What is the DNA doing at each point in time?  What essential event occurs during interphase, even though it is not technically part of mitosis?  Identify the pictures of mitosis from various diagrams.

17.             What are spindle fibers?  What two roles do they play in mitosis and meiosis?

18.             How is cytoplasmic division different in plant and animal cells?  Describe the cell plate and the cleavage furrow, and the processes that form them.

19.             Describe the stages of meiosis, in order.  What events occur during each stage of meiosis I?  What events occur during the stages of meiosis II?  What is the end result of meiosis I?  Of meiosis II?  What is cross-over?  Why is it important?

20.             Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.  Is mitosis more similar to meiosis I or II?  Compare the products of mitosis and meiosis:  number of cells produced, haploid or diploid, type of tissue (somatic or germ line).

21.             What are gametes?  Describe their chromosome numbers, and what happens to the number of chromosomes after fertilization.

22.             What would happen if one pair of homologous chromosomes did not separate during anaphase I?  Compare the numbers of chromosomes in the resulting cells…

23.             What is a mutation?  Explain how it relates to protein production.  What can cause a mutation?  Can mutations ever be repaired?

Genetics (Mendelian Monohybrid & Dihybrid Crosses)

Assigned homework: p. 181 problems 5 – 9 (not returned by Thursday in class).  Also review 3, 4, 10-15.   If you can understand problems like those from 10 to 15 you are in good shape for the exam.

24.              Know the difference between genes and alleles.  Can different alleles appear at the same locus (on different chromosomes)?  Can different genes share the same locus? Do homologous chromosomes always have identical alleles?  What about sister chromatids? 

25.             As meiosis creates new gametes, is it separating different genes or different alleles?  Explain.

26.             Who was Mendel?  What did he work on? Why did he select this species? Explain how chromosome behavior accounts for Mendel’s principles. What are the laws of segregation and independent assortment?  How do they relate to genetics?  Why are they so important?

27.             What is the difference between genotype and phenotype.  How are they related?  Give examples. What gametes can an individual with the genotype Aa produce?  AaBb?  AaBbCc?

28.             Define dominant and recessive.  Explain how alleles are represented as dominant or recessive.

29.             Write out a Punnett square for the cross Gg x Gg.  If G is dominant and causes green fruit and g (recessive) causes yellow fruit, describe the offspring from the cross.  Compare the ratios of distinct genotypes and distinct phenotypes from that cross.  (How is a 1:2:1 ratio involved?)

30.             Define heterozygous (hybrid), homozygous, monohybrid, and dihybrid.  Give examples of heterozygous, homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive for the alleles F and f.

31.             Explain the notation P, F₁, and F₂. Use it to label a cross/Punnett Square, like one of those in your book.

32.             What is a test cross?  Give an example of a cross between monohybrids.  Give an example of a cross between dihybrids.  Explain how 3:1 and 9:3:3:1 ratios are involved.

33.             Write out a Punnett square for TtFf x TTFF.  (Check:  are ¼ of the offspring dihybrids?)

34.             Describe an example of a single gene that affects multiple traits.  Review the alleles and genotypes for individuals with sickle cell anemia (and for carriers of that disorder).

35.             What is a karyotype diagram?  How is it made?  Where do the cells come from?  Why is mitosis important during the preparation of a karyotype?  How are karyotypes used?

36.             Explain how crossover creates new combinations of alleles. (Review Figure 10.3.)  When does crossover occur?

37.             Alleles that are frequently separated by crossover tend to be far apart on a chromosome— do you understand why? 

38.             What effects does a mutation have?  Are the effects always harmful?  Why is it unlikely that a single mutation will turn you into a superhero?  What is sickle-cell anemia?  Describe the four types of changes to chromosome structure.  Know their names. What is Philadelphia syndrome and why is it important?

39.             What is a nondisjunction and how does it occur?  What does it do to the number of chromosomes in gametes?  What happens to those numbers if the gametes combine with “normal” gametes.  Explain how nondisjunction is related to Down’s syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, and Kleinfelter’s syndrome.  What are the genotypes for those syndromes?

40.             Why do we do prenatal testing?  What are the types of treatments we talked about?  Know the difference between invasive and noninvasive procedures and who is at risk for genetic disorders forming in their babies.

41.             Explain why X-linked disorders occur more often in males.  Know examples.

Gene Regulation

1.      What is a karyotype diagram?  How is it made?  Where do the cells come from?  Why is mitosis important during the preparation of a karyotype?  How are karyotypes used?

2.      Alleles that are frequently separated by crossover tend to be far apart on a chromosome— do you understand why? 

3.      Define “autosomal dominant” and “autosomal recessive” disorders.  Using the information in the book, draw a pedigree for each of these patterns of inheritance.  Can parents be carriers of the disorder without having it themselves?

4.      Describe the four types of changes to chromosome structure.  Know their names. What is Philadelphia syndrome and why is it important?

5.      What is a nondisjunction and how does it occur?  What does it do to the number of chromosomes in gametes?  What happens to those numbers if the gametes combine with “normal” gametes?  Explain how nondisjunction is related to Down’s syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, and Kleinfelter’s syndrome.  What are the genotypes for those syndromes?

6.      Why do we do prenatal testing?  What are the types of treatments we talked about?  Know the difference between invasive and noninvasive procedures and who is at risk for genetic disorders forming in their babies.

7.      Explain why X-linked disorders occur more often in males.  Know examples.

8.      What is gene expression?  How does it control what happens in embryonic development?  How does the structure of DNA affect gene expression?  What is the significance of the inactive X chromosome in female mammals?

9.      In what ways are the later stages of translation and gene expression subject to regulation?  There are multiple mechanisms regulating gene expression- make sure you understand them.

DNA Technology & The Human Genome

10.  What is recombinant DNA?  How are plasmids used in gene research?  What is a genomic library?  How are nucleic acid probes used to identify clones with specific genes?  How are genetic markers used to distinguish the differences in DNA sequences?  What is a PCR?

11.  How much of the human genome consists of “good stuff” versus “junk”?  Who is Barbara McClintlock?

12.  What is the difference between regeneration, reproductive and therapeutic cloning?  What was Dolly the sheep?  Know what each of these terms means.  What is the significance of cloning animals like pigs or sheep?

13.  What are stem cells?  What is the difference between adult and embryonic stem cells?  What does it mean that stem cells are undifferentiated?  What do differentiated cells and undifferentiated cells refer to? 

Evolution

14.  Describe Charles Darwin’s education prior to his voyage on the HMS Beagle.  Why was the voyage of the Beagle important?  What observations did Darwin make during that trip?

15.  Describe the theory of natural selection.  Why is genetic variation needed for natural selection to occur.  What other factors are necessary?  How do some traits become more common in a population?  Why is mutation important?

16.  Define evolution.  Why do we say “populations evolve, individuals do not”?  How would Charles Darwin respond to this statement?

17.  How old is the Earth?  What kind of cells were formed first?  Has life existed as long on land as in water?  How closely are mammals related to fish, birds, reptiles, or amphibians?  What were the first vertebrates (animals with backbones) like?

18.  What kinds of items are considered fossils?  Why is the “fossil record” so incomplete?  Are all animals equally likely to form fossils?  Why or why not?

19.  What are the “pieces of the evolutionary puzzle” as we described in class?  How do these interact?  Know the role of each in how we interpret evolutionary processes.

20.  Discuss the types of evidence used to build evolutionary trees and to determine how species are related:  fossils, anatomy, embryos, biogeography, and biochemistry.  Give some examples.  Why are “useless” body parts (like leg bones in a whale) significant? 

21.  What is convergent evolution (forms analogous body parts)?  Why does this make it harder to decide if species are closely related?  What is the difference between homologous and analogous structures?

22.  What is macroevolution compared to microevolution?  What about natural and artificial selection?  Which takes place on a short time scale (hundreds of years)?  Which takes place on a geological time scale?

23.  Know these important people and how they contributed to science:

a)      Charles Darwin

b)      Gregor Mendel

c)      Rosalind Franklin

d)      Watson and Crick

e)      David Satcher

24.  Define population, species, and gene pool.  How many definitions of species can you find?

25.  Microevolution changes the frequency of alleles (or the composition of the gene pool).  Explain how mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, sexual selection (nonrandom mating), or natural selection can change the gene pool.  Be sure you understand the details of each process.

26.  Differentiate between parapatric, allopatric and sympatric speciation.  How could each one occur? 

27.  Describe the reproductive barriers that keep species separated:  mechanical isolation, behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, incompatibility of gametes, and ecological isolation.  How are prezygotic and postzygotic isolating mechanisms different?  Why isn’t “geographic isolation” included in this list?

28.  Know how to interpret the features of an evolutionary tree.  What is their “proper” name?  What is the study of these trees called?

43.  Get plenty of sleep, no partying on the night before.  See you all bright and early on Thursday!