I.
GENERAL STUDIES (Includes works overlapping sections III-XII below.)
Adams,
Frazier B. 1970. Colloquial speech forms. Appalachia revisited: how
people lived fifty years ago, pp. 47-49. Ashland, KY: Economy. Brief presentation
of archaisms. Review:C. S. Guthrie. 1970. Kentucky Folklore Record 16.81.
Arnow,
Harriet Simpson. 1963. The sounds of humankind. Flowering of the Cumberland,
pp. 121-55. New York: Macmillan. Descriptive essay by novelist on
range of language and verbal activity in Cumberland mountains.
Bailey,
Charles-James N. 1968. Is there a "midland" dialect of American English-Eric
Document 021 240. 7 pp. Opposes term "South Midland" as used by Linguistic
Atlas writers and claims preponderance of phonological and grammatical
evidence groups region encompassing most of South Carolina with the
South rather than with the "North Midland."
Bailey,
Charles-James N. 1973. Variation and linguistic theory. Arlington, VA:
Center for Applied Linguistics. viii + 162 pp. Presents new "dynamic paradigm"
for describing direction and rate of linguistic change and variation using
a wave model; analysis based mainly on phonological data, with many examples
from Southern English. Reviews: R. R. Butters. 1976. Language Sciences
40.32-36;V. Heeschen. 1976. Anthropos 71.298-99;A. S. Kaye. 1981. American
Speech 56.236-38;J. Sherzer. 1975. American Anthropologist 77.667- 68;E.
C. Traugott. 1976. Language 52.502-06;W. Wolfram. 1977. General Linguistics
17.178-85.
Bailey,
Charles-James N. 1973. The patterning of language variation. Varieties
of present-day English, ed. by Richard W. Bailey and Jay L. Robinson, pp.
156-86. New York: Macmillan. Theoretical essay synopsizing author's wave
model for language variation and change.
Bailey,
Joan Smith. 1971. Southern Appalachian non-standard speech in conflict
with the standard English of the classroom. Johnson City: East Tennessee
State University thesis. 50 pp. [65 high school students, 59 Male,
6 Female, with composition problems, East Tennessee]. Explores ways to
improve attitudes of failureprone speakers of Appalachian English toward
their language.
Bandy,
Lewis David. 1940. Language and beliefs. Folklore of Macon County, Tennessee,
pp. 52-63. Nashville: George Peabody College thesis. [North Central Tennessee].
Informal survey of unusual speech, especially lexical items.
Berk,
Laura E., and Ruth A. Garvin. 1984. Development of private speech among
low-income Appalachian children. Developmental Psychology 20.271-86. [East
Kentucky, 36 children ages 5-10]. Private speech is defined as that spoken
aloud for self-guidance, which is held to be crucial for intellectual development.
Berrey,
Lester V. 1940. Southern mountain dialect. American Speech 15.45- 54. General
features of Appalachian phonology, morphology, syntax, dialect subregions.
Blanton,
Linda. 1985. Southern Appalachia: social considerations of speech. Toward
a social history of American English, by J. L. Dillard, pp. 73-90. The
Hague: Mouton. Argues for existence of identifiable dialect called Southern
Appalachian English "on the basis of cultural solidarity, the boundaries
of this dialect [being] more social, more cultural, than geographical";
also argues that the dialect is composed of two varieties--a standard and
a nonstandard, both of which have features socially stigmatized by other
speakers of American English.
Blanton,
Linda. 1989. Mountain English. Encyclopedia of Southern culture, ed. by
William Ferris and Charles Wilson. Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press. Short essay discussing nature and major grammatical features
of Southern Appalachian and Ozark speech.
Blum-West,
Dina. 1983. The need for a descriptive study of Appalachian children's
language development. Abstract in Critical essays in Appalachian Life and
Culture: Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Apalachian Studies Conference,
ed. by Rick Simon, 108. Boone, NC: Appalachian Consortium. Says lack of
research on children's language patterns in Appalachia "poses a grave
problem for language assessment and educational planning in the
region."
Bond,
George Foot. 1939. A study of an Appalachian dialect. Gainesville: University
of Florida thesis. 119 pp. [6 Male, 2 Female, ages 20s-90+, Broad River
Valley, Western North Carolina]. Surveys pronunciation and vocabulary.
Boswell,
George W. 1951. An abstract of reciprocal influences of text and tune in
the southern traditional ballad. Nashville: George Peabody College dissertation.
Boswell,
George W. 1971. Class competition in Kentucky dialect study. Kentucky Folklore
Record 17.48-52. [Northeast Kentucky]. Discusses generational differences
in familiarity with archaic terms, with particular reference
to thirteen items; finds greatest difference between 15-25 and 25-50
age groups.
Bowman,
Blanche S. 1940. Study of a dialect employed by the people of Kentucky
mountains and presented through a group of original short stories. Manhattan:
Kansas State University thesis. 250 pp. Discussion of East Kentucky speech
by school-teacher who cites forms from fiction to exemplify local
patterns.
Bowman,
Elizabeth S. 1938. Land of high horizons. Kingsport, TN: Southern. Pp.
45-47, discusses general qualities of mountain speech.
Brandes,
Paul D., and Jeutonne Brewer. 1977. Dialect clash in America: issues and
answers. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow. Same as Eric Document 144 068. Appalachian
Amerenglish, pp. 251-311. Mainly for teachers, this chapter synopsizes
settlement and cultural history of the region and gives a non-technical
sketch of distinctive syntactic, phonological, lexical, and nonverbal communication
patterns of Appalachian speakers. Extensive bibliography. Reviews:E. Jongsma.
1978. Reading Teacher 31.957-58;J. Ornstein. 1978. Modern Language Journal
62.441-42;J. C. Scott. 1978. Southern Speech Communication Journal 43.418-20;S.
M. Tsuzaki. 1978. Quarterly Journal of Speech 64.353-54.
Burns,
Inez. 1978. Our southern mountaineers. Smoky Mountain Historical Society
Newsletter 4.2.10-13.
Butler,
Julia A. 1973. An investigation into verbal expressiveness and reading
group placement of culturally different second grade children. American
Psychological Association Proceedings 8.689-90. Assesses verbal expressiveness
of eighty-eight innercity black and white children from Appalachia.
Campbell,
John C. 1921. The Southern highlander and his homeland. New York: Russell
Sage Foundation. Pp. 144-46, comments on Southern Appalachian dialect.
Carpenter,
Charles. 1933. Variation in the Southern mountain dialect. American Speech
8.22-25. Subregional differences in Appalachian vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation.
Carpenter,
Charles. 1973. The folk-language of mid-Appalachia. Journal of the Alleghenies
9.27-31. [West Virginia]. Essay stressing that Appalachian English is combination
of old forms inherited from British dialects and new forms developed in
mountain speech.
Carpenter,
Charles. 1973. Pronunciation and grammar in mid-Appalachia. Journal of
the Alleghenies 9.31-35. [West Virginia]. Peculiarities of mountain speech,
including unusual examples of contraction and assimilation.
Carter,
Michael Vaughn. 1979. Culture, language and organization. Religious language
and collective action: a study of voluntarism in a rural Appalachian
church, pp. 57-70. Huntingdon, WV: Marshall University thesis. [Southwest
West Virginia]. Analyzes language of the Appalachian church in terms
of a "semi-autonomous symbolic cognitive system" enabling collective
action.
Carter,
Michael Vaughn. 1981. Religious language and collective action: a study
of voluntarism in a rural Appalachian church. Appalachia/America: proceedings
of the 1980 Appalachian studies conference, ed. by Wilson Somerville, pp.
218-29. Johnson City, TN: Appalachian Consortium Press. [Southwest West
Virginia]. Examines "use of religious language in the church and the organization
of the church as a voluntary organization."
Cassidy,
Frederic G. 1985. Language changes especially common in American folk
speech. Dictionary of American Regional English, ed. by Frederic G.
Cassidy, pp. xxxvi-xl. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Compendium
of thirteen types of changes of word form, twelve grammatical changes,
five types of derivational change, and four changes in pronunciation
in American folk speech represented in Dictionary of American Regional
English.
Champion,
Larry S. 1983. "Bold to play": Shakespeare in North Carolina. Shakespeare
in the South, ed. by Philip C. Kolin, 231-46. Jackson: University Press
of Mississippi. P. 238, quotes theatre directors and critics as testifying
that Shakespearean language is more intelligible in W North Carolina
than elsewhere in country because it is close to the everyday speech there.
Christian,
Donna, Walt Wolfram, and Nanjo Dube. 1984. Variation and change in geographically
isolated communities: Appalachian English and Ozark English. Washington:
Center for Applied Linguistics. Final National Science Foundation report.
280 pp. Eric Document 246 682. [Northwest Arkansas, Southern West Virginia].
Compares Ozark and Appalachian English to determine similarity between
the two and examines how each preserves patterns and undergoes change;
includes extended treatment of auxiliary verbs, personal datives,
a-prefixing,
patterns of irregular verbs, and subject-verb concord.
Coleman,
Wilma. 1936. Mountain dialects in north Georgia. Athens: University of
Georgia thesis. 30 pp. Sentimental study of archaic and unusual forms
undertaken "with a desire to preserve a portion of this quaint old English
dialect as the mountaineers in the most remote regions use it."
Combs,
Josiah H. 1916. Dialect of the folk-song. Dialect Notes 4.311-18. [Appalachia,
West Virginia to Georgia]. Dialect words; phonological and syntactic
irregularities.
Combs,
Josiah H. 1931. The language of the Southern highlander. Publication of
the Modern Language Association 46.1302-22. Compiles figurative expressions,
colloquialisms, pronunciation, and syntax of Southern Appalachia.
Combs,
Josiah H. 1943. The Kentucky highlands from a native mountaineer's viewpoint.
Lexington, KY: J. L. Richardson. 44 pp. Scattered references
to dialect throughout.
Combs,
Josiah H. 1957. Spellin' 'em down in the highlands. Kentucky Folklore Record
3.69-73. [Kentucky]. Anecdotes about unlettered techniques for spelling
in spelling bees, the "proper" use of language in the mountains, how
mountain residents greet one another and give directions to strangers,
etc.
Conklin,
Nancy Faires, and Margaret A. Lourie. 1983. A host of tongues: language
communities in the United States. New York: Free Press. Regional dialects
of American English, pp. 72-95, scattered comments on and discusion of
features of Southern and Appalachian English.
Cooper,
Horton. 1972. North Carolina mountain folklore and miscellany. Murfreesboro,
NC: Johnson. [Western North Carolina]. Riddles, pp. 55-56; Children's rhymes,
pp. 82-85; The early vernacular of the North Carolina mountains, pp. 87-97;
Proverbs and expressions, pp. 101-02.
Cox,
Ellen D. 1969. A study of dialect peculiarities of Scott County, Tennessee
secondary school students. Knoxville: University of Tennessee thesis.[Northeast
Tennessee].
Damron,
Shayla R. 1977. A bidialectal approach: strategies for assimilating the
mainstream dialect into the non-mainstream Southern mountain dialect. Eric
Document 210 128. 29 pp.[East Kentucky]. Instructional packet to assess
individual's language patterns and series of strategies and exercises
for increasing student awareness of dialect forms produced.
Damron,
Shayla R. 1977. Instructional packet: a bidialectal approach. Berea College
Appalachian Center. 26 pp. Focuses on black mountain children.
Davis,
Lawrence M. 1970. Some social aspects of the speech of blue-grass Kentucky.
Orbis 19.337-41. [10 White, 1 Black, East Kentucky]. Says Linguistic
Atlas of the North Central States data for KY is insufficient for
generalizing about systematic black-white differences in verb
principal parts and in pronunciation.
Davis,
Lawrence M. 1971. A study of Appalachian speech in a northern urban setting.
Final report. National Center for Educational Research and Development,
Washington. Eric Document 061 205. 63 pp. [25 speakers, East Kentucky and
Southern West Virginia, 19 having moved to Chicago]. Compares
speech of Appalachian residents with Appalachian migrants to
Chicago using diafeature rules; finds no significant differences in phonology
and few nonstandard grammatical features in speech of any informants.
Davis,
Lawrence M. 1977. Dialectology and linguistics. Orbis 26.24-30. Theoretical
article examining method for distinguishing dialects on basis of diafeatures,
shown in an example from East Kentucky.
Davis,
Lawrence M., and Linda L. Blanton. 1972. Some aspects of the social stratification
of English in Southern Appalachia. Abstract in Newsletter of the American
Dialect Society 5.2.5. [East Kentucky]. Suggests socioeconomic and educational
differences are not most crucial factors in accounting for variation
in Southern Appalachian speech.
den
Holander, A. N. J. 1934. Uber die Bevolkerung der Appalachen. Zeitschrift
der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde 7/8.241-56.
Dial,
Wylene. 1969. The dialect of the Appalachian people. West Virginia History
30.463-71. Argues with those who consider Appalachian dialect a corruption
of English; say it is more accurate to consider it an archaic variety
and documents ancestry of characteristic Appalachian forms from 16th- century
and earlier literature. Reprinted in B. B. Maurer, ed. 1969. Mountain heritage,
pp. 82-91. Ripley, WV: Mountain State Art and Craft Fair, Cedar Lake;in
D. N. Mielke, ed. 1978. Teaching mountain children, pp. 49-58. Boone,
NC: Appalachian Consortium.
Dial,
Wylene. 1970. Folk speech is English, too. Mountain Life and Work 46.2.16-18
(Feb.); 46.5.15-17 (May).
Dial,
Wylene P. 1976. Appalachian dialect. The West Virginia heritage encyclopedia,
ed. by Jim Comstock, pp. 1320-34. Richwood, WV: privately published.
Dingus,
L. R.1915. A word list from Virginia. Dialect Notes 4.177-93. [Scott County,
Southwest Virginia]. Discusses phonology, morphology, and syntax,
and presents wordlist of 500 items.
Dingus,
L. R. 1927. Appalachian mountain words. Dialect Notes 5.468-71. [Kentucky].
Wordlist of 100 items and shorter lists of specimen pronunciations
and grammatical items. from James Watt Raine's The Land of Saddle Bags.
Doran,
Edwina Bean. 1969. Folksay. Folklore in White County, Tennessee,
pp. 97-141. Nashville: George Peabody College dissertation. Abstract
in Dissertation Abstracts International 31.322A. [Central Tennessee]. Includes
place name etymology, folk-speech vocabulary, proverbs and phrases,
and unusual personal names.
Dumas,
Bethany K. 1975. Smoky Mountain speech. Pioneer Spirit 76, ed. by Dolly
Berthelot, pp. 24-29. Knoxville, TN: Privately printed. [East Tennessee].
Overview article for lay readers.
Dumas,
Bethany K. 1977. Research needs in Tennessee English. Papers in language
variation: SAMLA-ADS collection, ed. by David L. Shores and Carole P. Hines,
pp. 201-08. University: University of Alabama Press. Programmatic
statement of research needs and proposal for Tennessee Language
Survey, with interview and goals of the project outlined.
Dumas,
Bethany K. 1981. East Tennessee talk. An encyclopedia of East Tennessee,
ed. by Jim Stokely and Jeff D. Johnson, pp. 170-76. Oak Ridge, TN: Children's
Museum. Survey of grammar, pronunciation, and language attitudes of region.
Duncan,
Hannibal G. 1926. The Southern highlanders. Journal of Applied Sociology
10.556-61. Stresses isolation of mountain people, of which archaic language
is one result.
Duncan,
Hannibal Gerald, and Winnie Leach Duncan. 1929. Superstitions and
sayings among the Southern highlanders. Journal of American Folklore 42.233-37.
Includes remarks on dialects of subregions of Appalachia.
Dunn,
Durwood. 1977. The folk culture of Cades Cove, Tennessee. Tennessee Folklore
Society Bulletin 43.67-87. [Blount County, East Tennessee]. Reviews linguistic
research done on Cades Cove residents in Smoky mountains, pp. 76- 78.
Edmiston,
William C. 1930. The speech of the hill people of Todd County, Kentucky.
Kentucky Folklore and Poetry Magazine 5.3-9. [Southwest Kentucky].
Says hill residents live and speak as their ancestors did a century earlier
and discusses typical words and expressions.
Ellis,
Michael E. 1984. The relationship of Appalachian English with the
British regional dialects. Johnson City: East Tennessee State University
thesis. 55 pp. Compares lexical, phonological, and morphological
evidence in material collected by Tracey Miller and James R. Reese in East
Tennessee and material in Survey of English Dialects in Britain, but says
the few correspondences found form no uniform pattern.
Fullerton,
Robert. 1980. An unhappy farewell. West Virginia University Alumni Magazine.
Winter/Spring, 6-7. Discusses work of Martha Howard on speech patterns
in the state, particularly to resurvey LAMSAS communities covered by Guy
Lowman in the 1940s.
Fusilier,
Freida M. 1971. The speech and language characteristics of rural Appalachian
children. Appalachian Medicine 3.88-89. [West Virginia]. Believes failure
in school is linked to language patterns.
Gainer,
Patrick W. 1975. Speech of the mountaineers. Witches ghosts and signs:
folklore of the Southern Appalachains, pp. 1-18. Morgantown, WV: Seneca.
Gates,
Michael Foley. 1972. Language characteristics of disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged
children when engaged in problem tasks. Morgantown: West Virginia University
dissertation. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International
33.2915-16A. [88 7th-graders]. Finds no linguistic differences between
disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged children but the latter had a superior
"nonverbal ability ... to solve problem tasks."
Goff,
John Hedges. n.d. Ballads and dialects of the Southern mountaineers. Atlanta:
Oglethorpe University thesis. 34 pp. Classifies distinctive linguistic
forms in mountains as 1) obsolete forms; 2) illiterate and careless
forms; or 3) neologisms required by local conditions; includes word-lists
from Kentucky, North Carolina, and Tennessee. Much material taken from
J. Combs.
Golden,
Ruth. 1964. Improving English skills of culturally different youth. Washington:
U.S. Government Printing Office. P., 104, identification and unsophisticated
description of features of speech of "culturally disadvantaged
children" migrating from Appalachia to Detroit.
Greene,
Susan Lutters. 1972. A comparison of black and white speech in a rural
Georgia county. Athens: University of Georgia thesis. 482 pp., including
transcriptions of data. [4 White, 7 Black adults, Walton County, Northeast
Georgia]. Finds minimal differences between black and white speech, e.g.,
only black speech has word-final glottal stop and white speech diphthongizes
short front vowels and uses postvocalic /r/ more than black speech; finds
no evidence of unmarked be.
Hackenberg,
Robert G. 1975. The application of sociolinguistic techniques in rural
Appalachia. Views on language, ed. by Reza Ordoubadian and Walburga von
Raffler-Engel, pp. 192-200. Murfreesboro: Middle Tennessee State University.
[West Virginia]. Discusses applicability of socioeconomic indices
developed by urban sociologists for measuring social stratification
in rural West Virginia.
Hall,
Joseph S. 1939. Recording speech in the Great Smokies. Regional Review
3.3-8. Richmond, VA: National Park Service, Region One. [East Tennessee].
Account of field work for his dissertation listed in section 4 below.
Hall,
Joseph S. 1941. Mountain speech in the Great Smokies. National Park Service
history popular study series no. 5. Washington. DC: United States Department
of the Interior. ii + 13 pp., 6 illustrations. Same as preceding item.
Hall,
Joseph S. 1960. Smoky mountain folks and their lore. Asheville, NC:
Cataloochee Press. Smokies dialect, pp. 54-65. List of items collected
by author in Tennessee, North Carolina mountains from 1937 to 1956. Review:
L Roberts. 1964. Mountain Life and Work 40.4.225.
Hall,
Mary P. F. 1977. Description of the linguistic characteristics of
the careful speech of recent high school graduates in entry-level positions
of job categories of large employment in selected counties of southwest
Virginia. Blacksburg: Virginia Polytechnic Institute thesis.
Halpert,
Herbert. 1924. [Language of the Pine Mountain area]. Notes from the Pine
Mountain Settlement School 2.1-2. [Southeast Kentucky]. Informal essay
on archaisms, especially those with a literary flavor, in mountain speech.
Hannum,
Alberta Pierson. 1943. Words and music. The Great Smokies and the Blue
Ridge, ed. by Roderick Peattie, pp. 146-50. [East Tennessee, Western
North Carolina]. New York: Vanguard. Discusses grammar, pronunciation,
Chaucerisms, and distinctive place names in the Smoky Mountains.
Hannum,
Alberta Pierson. 1969. Shakespeare's America. Look back with love, pp.
29-33. New York: Vanguard. Reprinting of preceding item.
Harris,
Jesse W. 1946. The dialect of Appalachia in southern Illinois. American
Speech 21.96-99. Discussion, list, and comparison of vocabulary and
pronunciation of area to research on Southern Appalachian speech.
Hannum,
Alberta Pierson. 1943. The mountain people. The great smokies and the blue
ridge, ed. by Roderick Peattie, 73-151. New York: Vanguard.
Hannum,
Alberta Pierson. 1969. Shakespeare's America. Look back with love, 29-33.
New York: Vanguard. page numbers do not correspond to dictionary (49-50)
Harrison,
Deane Bell. 1995. Smoke rings. Rogersville: East Tennessee Printing Company.
Hendrickson,
Robert. 1986. American talk: the words and ways of American dialects. New
York: Viking. 230 pp. Deep down in the holler where the hoot owl hollers
at noon: hillbilly tawk, 113-29. Popular condensation of exotic features,
based on personal observations and century of published research and characterized
by overstatements and anachronisms.
Hendrickson,
Robert. 199xx. Mountain range
Hench,
Atcheson L. 1938. Corbins and Nicolsons - a preliminary note. American
Speech 13.77-79. [Northern Virginia]. Report on thirty-eight Virginia informants
whose speech was taperecorded by Hench and Archibald Hill.
Howell,
Benita J. 1981. A survey of folklife along the Big South Fork of the Cumberland
River: report of investigations no. 30. Knoxville: University of Tennessee
Department of Anthropology. Speech, p. 206. [Central Tennessee]. Brief,
general comments on Appalachian speech and report of available data
from Big South Fork study.
Hurst,
Sam N. 1929. Mountain speech. The mountains redeemed: the romance of the
mountains, pp. 32-34. Appalachia, VA: Hurst and Company. Comments on archaicness,
aptness of expression, and exactness of logic of Southern Appalachian speech.
Jackson,
Sarah E. 1975. Unusual words, expressions, and pronunciation in a
North Carolina mountain community. Appalachian Journal 2.148-60. [Ashe
County, Western North Carolina]. Unusual usage, idioms, names, and pronunciations
collected by an outsider.
Jones,
Mabel Jean. 1973. The regional English of the former inhabitants of Cades
Cove in the Great Smoky Mountains. Knoxville: University of Tennessee dissertation.
Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International 34.5146A. [5 elderly natives,
Blount County, East Tennessee]. Study of pronunciation (mostly of
vowels) and grammar (mostly of verb principal parts) of ex-inhabitants
of Cades Cove area.
Kephart,
Horace. 1913. The mountain dialect. Our Southern highlanders, 276-
304. New York: Macmillan. Revised edition (1922), pp. 350-78. Reprinted
in 1976 by University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville. [North Carolina, Tennessee
mountains]. Informal, lay account of speech of Smoky Mountains;
some phonology and grammar; mainly lexicon. Reviews:M. Bush. 1977.
American Forests 83.38-39;W. K. McNeil. 1978. Journal of American
Folklore 91.612-13;H. D. Shapiro. 1977. Book Forum 3.278-84.
Kroll,
H. H. 1925. A comparative study of upper and lower Southern folk speech.
Nashville: George Peabody College thesis. Compiles in dictionary format
dialect forms heard by author in nine disparate Southern counties.
Kurath,
Hans. 1972. Studies in area linguistics. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press. The structure of the Upper South, pp. 46-51, geographical perspectives
on region's speech, with emphasis on boundaries. Reviews:G. Gilbert. 1976.
La Monda Lingvo-Problemo 6.56-61;M. F. Hopkins. 1975. Southern Speech Communication
Journal 40.213-14;R. I. McDavid, Jr. 1971. American Speech 47.285-92;L.
A. Pederson. 1975. Foundations of Language 12.609-13;R. Shuy. 1974. Language
in Society 3.295-97;M. S. Whitley. 1975. Linguistics 161.109-20.
Long,
Julia Smith. 1983. Effects of socio-dramatic play on language development
of rural Appalachian kindergarten high-potential children. Tampa:
University of South Florida dissertation. Dissertation Abstracts International
45.148A. Based on eighty kindergarteners.
Lunsford,
Bascom Lamar. 1975. It happened [--rest of biblio info--]
McDavid,
Raven I., Jr. 1958. The dialects of American English. The structure of
American English, by W. Nelson Francis, pp. 480-543. New York: Ronald Press.
Excellent introduction to regional dialects of Atlantic states,
detailing causes and development of dialect differences and chronicling
formal study of regional dialects by Linguistic Atlas of the United States
and Canada projects. Presents characteristic pronunciation, vocabulary,
morphology, and syntax of principal and subsidiary dialect
areas. Includes brief discussion of social class dialects and on influence
of foreign-language communities, including French, German, and
African, on Southern English.
McDavid,
Raven I., Jr. 1970. Language characteristics of specific groups: native
whites. Readings for the disadvantaged: problems of linguistically different
learners, ed. by Thomas D. Horn, pp. 135-39. New York: Harcourt, Brace
and World. Advice for the Northern teacher of students speaking Southern
or South Midland English; discusses pronunciation, stress pat-terns,
grammar of the latter.
McDavid,
Raven I., Jr. 1971. What happens in Tennessee-Dialectology: problems
and perspectives, ed. by Lorraine Hall Burghardt, pp. 119-29. Knoxville:
University of Tennessee Department of English. Presents cultural and historical
background for proposed linguistic research in Tennessee and identifies
crucial linguistic variables to investigate.
McDavid,
Raven I., Jr., William A. Kretzschmar, Jr., et al., eds. 1982-86. Linguistic
atlas of the middle and South atlantic states and affiliated projects:
basic materials. Microfilm MSS on Cultural Anthropology 68.360-64,
69.365-69, 71.375-80. Chicago: Joseph Regenstein Library, University of
Chicago. Includes field records of Linguistic Atlas of the Middle and South
Atlantic States interviews from MD, DC, Virginia, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida and Gullah interviews conducted by
Turner.
McDavid,
Raven I., Jr., and Richard C. Payne, eds., with the assistance of
Duane Taylor and Evan Thomas. 1976-78. Linguistic atlas of the north-central
states. Basic materials (unaltered field records). Manuscripts on
cultural anthropology series XXXVIII, no. 200-08. Microfilm. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago. Forty-three reels containing field records
of phonetically recorded transcribed responses of 505 informants;
volume 206 constitutes 6 reels with Kentucky field records.
McDavid,
Raven I., Jr., et al., eds. 1976-79. Kentucky. Linguistic atlas of
the north central states. Manuscripts on cultural anthropology series
XXXVIII, no. 206. Chicago: University of Chicago.
McGreevy,
John C. 1977. Breathitt County, Kentucky grammar. Chicago: Illinois Institute
of Technology dissertation. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International
38.5437A. [9 teenagers, 11 adults, East Kentucky]. Finds no social class
correlation with twenty-three grammatical and phonological
features, thus concluding "Breathitt County is a homogeneous speech
community."
McMeekin,
Clark. 1957. Old Kentucky country. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce. Pp.
149-50 on dialect.
Maloney,
Mike. 1976. Appalachian culture: a guide for students and teachers, ed.
by Peggy Calestro and Ann Hill, p. 185. Columbus: Ohio State University
Research Foundation.
Mayo,
Margot. 1952. Kentucky talk. Promenade 8.71.
Mayo,
Margot. 1953. More Kentucky talk. Promenade 8.8.1
Mead,
Martha Norburn. 1942. Asheville ... in land of the sky. Richmond, VA: Dietz
Press. [Western North Carolina]. Pp. 59-60, comments on language.
Medford,
W. Clark. 1966. How our mountain speech became so colorful. Great
smoky mountain stories and sun over ol' starlin, pp. 65-67. Waynesville,
NC: privately published. [Western North Carolina]. Says early mountain
residents often crafted new words to meet immediate needs, and lists
local idioms and figures of speech not acknowledged by dictionaries.
Mencken,
Henry Louis. 1936. The American language. Fourth edition. New York:
Knopf. 769 pp. Supplement One, 1945739 pp.; Supplement Two, 1948.
890 pp. One volume edition abridged by Raven I. McDavid, Jr., with assistance
of David W. Maurer, 1963. xxv + 777 pp. Encyclopedic work synthesizing
lifetime of reading and correspondence on host of topics from regional
dialects to American naming practices and British-American differences.
Bibliography in footnotes includes wide range of popular and
scholarly articles in local magazines and newspapers. Reviews:W. Card.
1963. College English 25.230-31;A. Duckert. 1964. Names 12.123-26;W. C.
Greet. 1965. American Speech 40.58-61;R. Howren. 1965. Philological
Quarterly 44.133-35;L. A. Pederson. 1965. Orbis 14.63-74;R. M. Wilson.
1965. Year's Work in English Studies 44.63-64;R. W. Wilson. 1964. Canadian
Journal of Linguistics 10.70-72;H. B. Woolf. 1966. English Studies 47.102-18.
Miles,
Emma Bell. 1905. The literature of a wolf-race. The spirit of the mountains,
pp. 172-78. Reprinted in 1976. Knoxville: University of Tennessee
Press. Essay on literary qualities of mountain speech; cites "wild
and elemental poetry" and "terse and piquant proverbs" of mountaineers.
Miller,
Jim Wayne. 1985. Beaucoons of words. New York Times Magazine, Jan. 13,
pp. 9-10. How people adjust their language to their purposes, with emphasis
on Appalachia; essay on creativity and expressive derivatives in mountain
speech, especially in the author's native Western North Carolina.
Miller,
Tracey Russell. 1973. An investigation of the regional English of Unicoi
County, Tennessee. Knoxville: University of Tennessee dissertation. Abstract
in Dissertation Abstracts International 34.5147A. [6 older natives, Northeast
Tennessee]. Describes phonetic characteristics and selection of relic vocabulary.
Montgomery,
Michael. 1980. A partial comparison of Southern Appalachian English and
Vernacular Black English. Abstract in Newsletter of the American Dialect
Society 12.3.10. [East Tennessee]. Discusses extent to which grammatical
and phonological features of Vernacular Black English are present
in speech of residents of small Appalachian community.
Montgomery,
Michael. 1989. The English language in the South. The Encyclopedia of Southern
Culture, ed. by Charles Reagan Wilson and William Ferris, 761-67. Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Montgomery,
Michael. 1992. The pace of change in Appalachian English. History of Englishes,
ed. by Matti Rissanen, et al., 624-39. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. (with
Curtis Chapman).
Montgomery,
Michael. 1994. The contributions of Joseph Sargent Hall to Appalachian
studies. Journal of the Appalachian Studies Association 6.89-98.
Montgomery,
Michael. 1995. Does Tennessee have three "grand" dialects-: Evidence from
the Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States. Tennessee Folklore Society Bulletin
57.69-84.
Montgomery,
Michael. 1996. How Scotch-Irish is your English- Journal of East Tennessee
History 67.1-33.
Montgomery,
Michael. 1998. In the Appalachians they speak like Shakespeare. Myths in
linguistics, ed. by Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill, 66-76. New York: Penguin.
Montgomery,
Michael. 1998. Speech. Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, ed.
by Carroll Van West, 875-76. Nashville: Rutledge Hill Press.
Morgan,
Lucia C. 1967. North Carolina accents: some observations. North Carolina
Journal of Speech and Drama 1.1.3-8. Based on speech of college students
native to state, presents pronunciations and vocabulary, especially
from Appalachians and Outer Banks, that author considers remnants
of colonial speech.
Mull,
J. Alex. n.d. Mountain yarns, legends and lore. Mountain dialect and sayings,
pp. 12-14. Banner Elk, NC: Pudding Stone Press.
Orton,
Harold, and Nathalia Wright. 1972. Questionnaire for the investigation
of American regional English: based on the work sheets of the Linguistic
Atlas of the United States and Canada. Knoxville: University of Tennessee
Department of English. Designed for investigation of archaic Tennessee
speech.
Parris,
John. 1955. Roaming the mountains. Asheville, NC: Citizen-Times. [Western
North Carolina]. Mountain idiom fading, pp. 21-23, unusual expressions
in mountains;Origin of mountain county names, pp. 179-82.
Parris,
John. 1967. Mountain bred. Asheville, NC: Citizen-Times. [Western North
Carolina]. A lavish of homespun names, pp. 26-27;Mountain idiom fading,
pp. 120-22. Romance of mountain speech reflected in archaisms and placenames.
Parris,
John. 1972. These storied mountains. Asheville, NC: Citizen-Times.
[Western North Carolina]. Flavorsome talk, pp. 23-24; figures of speech
and similes in mountain speech;Do tongue twisters still defy diction-,
pp. 286- 87.
Pearsall,
Marion. 1966. Communicating with the educationally deprived. Mountain Life
and Work 42.8-11 (spring). Reprinted in F. S. Riddel, ed. 1974. Appalachia:
its people, heritage, and problems, pp. 55-62. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
Pederson,
Lee A. 1977. Randy sons of Nancy Whisky. American Speech 52.112- 21. [East
Tennessee, North Georgia]. Shows how plentiful undocumented folk terms
for illegal whiskey present problems for historical lexicographers and
for semantic analysis.
Pederson,
Lee A. 1981. The regional and social dialects of East Tennessee: a
preliminary overview. Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States Working Paper,
series one, no. 8. Microfiche no. 1187-89. Addendum to Pederson et al.
1981. 261 pp. Final report to National Council of Teachers of English Research
Foundation. Published later as following item.
Pederson,
Lee A. 1983. East Tennessee folk speech: a synopsis. Bamberger beitrage
zur Englischen sprachwissenschaft 12. Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang.
254 pp. [70 natives of both races and several social classes]. Presents
idiolect synopsis of 137 selected features in narrow phonetic transcription
for each informant; analyzes pronunciation of phonemes, incidence
of phonemes and morphological and lexical variants, and regional, subregional,
and social factors in area. Also includes chapters on settlement history
and methodology. Review: E. Schneider. 1984. English World-Wide 5.130-32.
Pederson,
Lee A., Susan Leas, Guy H. Bailey, and Marvin H. Bassett, eds. 1981. Linguistic
atlas of the gulf states: the basic materials. Microform collection.
Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms. Massive bank of 128,000 pages of
raw data, summary, and background from over 1,100 recorded interviews
totaling over 5,000 hours and conducted in eight Southern states.
Although unedited and mostly in phonetic transcription, the largest
single collection of data on Southern speech, containing more data on speech
of Southern blacks than all other collections combined.
Pederson,
Lee A., Susan Leas, Guy H. Bailey, and Marvin H. Bassett, eds. 1981. The
Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States protocols. Ann Arbor, MI: University
Microfilms. Field notebooks containing phonetic forms of elicited and observed
forms of more than 1,100 Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States informants.
Pederson,
Lee A., Susan Leas, Guy H. Bailey, and Marvin H. Bassett, eds. 1981. The
idiolect synopses of the Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States protocols.
Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms. One-page synopsis of characteristic
forms of each of more than 1,100 Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States informants.
Pederson,
Lee A., Susan Leas McDaniel, and Marvin H. Bassett, eds. 1986. The linguistic
atlas of the gulf states: a concordance of basic materials. Ann Arbor,
MI: University Microfilms. 152 microfiche of alphabetical concordance,
two series of working papers, and other material.
Pederson,
Lee A., Susan Leas McDaniel, Guy H. Bailey, and Marvin H. Bassett, eds.
1986. The linguistic atlas of the gulf states, volume 1: handbook for the
linguistic atlas of the gulf states. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
376 pp. Reviews:J. B. McMillan. 1987. Alabama Review 40.157-58;W. Viereck.
1987. Journal of English Linguistics 20.255-57.
Pederson,
Lee. 1990. Linguistic atlas of the gulf states: volumes 4-7. Athens: University
of Georgia Press.
Peterson,
Betty. 1987. Why they talk that talk: language in Appalachian studies.
English Journal 76.53-56.
Pfaff,
Brenda Cottrell. 1983. A critique of Appalachian sociolinguistics.
Abstract in Critical essays on Appalachian life and culture: proceedings
of the fifth annual Appalachian studies conference, ed. by Rick Simon,
p. 121. Boone, NC: Appalachian Consortium. Says sociolinguistic
methods are more thorough and more detailed than linguistic atlas methods,
and thus better suited to answering larger question of existence of Appalachian
dialect.
Qazilbash,
Husain A. 1972. Appalachia: people, dialect, and communication problems.
Journal of Reading Behavior 5.14-25. [13 speakers from each of 9 states
from New York to Alabama]. Claims that speech of Appalachian residents
is a restricted code (in Bernstein sense).
Qazilbash,
Husain A. 1972. A dialect survey of the Appalachian region. Tallahassee:
Florida State University dissertation. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts
International 32.6085A. Also Eric Document 052 210. Same as Atlanta: National
Center for Educational Research and Development Regional Research
Report 4. Also Final report to Dept. of Health Education and Welfare. Published
by Appalachian Adult Education Demonstration Center, Morehead State University.
[13 informants from each of 9 states from New York to Alabama]. Claims
that rustic speakers "have a small functional vocabulary" and "misuse more
words" than modern and cultured speakers and that "there is a distinct
pattern or linguistic structure throughout the Appalachian Region
without any sub-regional differences within the region."Pp. 383-421,
Alphabetized list of Colloquial Terms and their Explorations.
Raine,
James W. 1924. Mountain speech and song. The land of saddle-bags, pp. 95-124.
New York City: Council of Women for Home Missions. Kentucky mountain
speech.
Ray,
George Bryan. 1983. An ethnography of speaking in an Appalachian community.
Seattle: University of Washington dissertation. Abstract in Dissertation
Abstracts International 44.2624A. [Jackson County, Kentucky]. Study of
speech used in eight leisure and religious speech events in six domestic
and public speech situations.
Ray,
George Bryan. 1983. An ethnography of speaking in an Appalachian community.
Abstract in Critical essays in Appalachian life and culture: proceedings
of the fifth annual Appalachian studies conference, ed. by Rick Simon,
p. 121. Boone, NC: Appalachian Consortium. [East Kentucky]. Refers to talk
on home porches, talk at stores, and testifying in church in terms of nine
components of speech events.
Reese,
James Robert. 1975. The myth of the Southern American dialect as a mirror
of the mountaineer. Voices from the hills: selected readings on Southern
Appalachia, ed. by Robert J. Higgs and Ambrose N. Manning, pp. 474- 92.
New York: Ungar. Questions existence of single identifiable Appalachian
dialect and claims heterogeneity of mountain speech.
Reese,
James Robert. 1977. Variation in Appalachian English: a study of the speech
of elderly, rural natives of East Tennessee. Knoxville: University
of Tennessee dissertation. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International
38.7304-05A. [12 older Whites, Northeast Tennessee]. Investigates
degree of "systematic variation" in lexicon, syntax, morphology, and
phonology in speech of sociologically similar informants; finds extensive
variation among the speakers, but "no general consistent sub-patterns
of agreement" between areas of linguistic structure.
Reese,
James Robert. 1978. Randomly distributed dialects in Appalachian English:
syntactic and phonological variation in East Tennessee. Southeastern
Conference on Linguistics Bulletin 2.67-76. [16 elderly Whites, Northeast
Tennessee]. Claims existence of "randomly distributed dialects" by finding
"four distinct dialectal linguistic systems" in speech of sixteen sociologically
and geographically similar informants.
Reese,
James Robert. 1981. Appalachian English: reality and myth. Cross-
Reference 1.3.1,6-7. Report on series of public forums in Johnson County,
Tennessee, on issues related to Appalachian English. Reprinted in
Tennessee Linguistics 1.1.35-36.
Reese,
James Robert. 1981. Goals for the collection and use of Appalachian oral
materials in the 1980s. Appalachia/America: proceedings of the 1980 Appalachian
studies conference, ed. by Wilson Somerville, pp. 230-35. Johnson City,
TN: Appalachian Consortium Press. Argues that wealth of oral materials
collected by scholars in Appalachia needs to be catalogued, analyzed,
and adapted to classroom use to answer questions about Appalachian culture
and language.
Reese,
James Robert. 1983. Intonational variation in southern Appalachian English.
Abstract in Newsletter of the American Dialect Society 15.2.5. Suggests
computer analysis of pitch, stress, vowel length, and juncture can be used
to identify and classify dialects in Southern Appalachian region.
Reinhardt,
J. M. 1926. Speech and balladry of the southern highlands. Quarterly
Journal of the University of North Dakota 16.139-47. Discusses archaism,
conservatism, and expressiveness of Southern Appalachian speech.
Roberts,
Eleanor M. 1977. The piedmont dialect. Sandlapper 10.2.11. [Northwest
South Carolina]. Claims "old English" still spoken in Piedmont area
of South Carolina and that English of settlers remains unchangd in modern-day
South Carolina; says blacks and Scots had only marginal lexical influence
on South Carolina speech.
Rudd,
Mary J. 1976. The use of third person reference in multi-party conversations
in an Appalachian community. Anthropological Linguistics 18.349-59.
[East Kentucky]. Explores functions of conversational technique
in which reference made to a third party constrains that party from speaking,
while allowing other parties to participate in conversation; suggests
this technique varies in frequency and normative character according
to region.
Sasiki,
Midori. 1979. Southern Appalachian English: the language of Faulkner's
country people. Chu-Shikoku Studies in American Literature 15.37- 46.
Scarbrough,
George. 1976. My mother language, my father tongue. Appalachian Journal
4.28-34. Native Tennessean's contrast of his mother's and his father's
speech habits from his childhood.
Slone,
Verna Mae. 1979. What my heart wants to tell. New York: Perennial.
Slone,
Verna Mae. 1983. How we talked. Pippa Passes, KY: Pippa Valley Printing.
135 pp.
Smith,
Emma Deane Trent. 1987. East Tennessee's lore of yesteryear.
Spurlock,
John Howard. 1980. He sings for us: a sociolinguistic analysis of
the Appalachian subculture and of Jesse Stuart as a major American author.
Lanham, MD: University Press of America. x + 180 pp. Study of major literary
elements in poetry and fiction of Kentucky writer.
Stewart,
William A. 1967. Language and communication in Southern Appalachia.
Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics. 43 pp. Eric Document
012 026. Identifies two major nonstandard dialects in Apppalachia,
one white and one black, and discusses their social status and pedagogical
programs for dialect speakers in Appalachian schools.
Stewart,
William A. 1969. Language teaching problems in Appalachia. Florida
Foreign Language Reporter 7.1.58-59,161. Excerpt of preceding item.
Stewart,
William A. 1971. Language learning and teaching in Appalachia. Appalachia
4.8.27-34. Discusses variation in Appalachian speech, social status of
white and black varieties, and barriers to effective language teaching
in region because of misunderstanding of cultural and linguistic basis
of many educational problems.
Still,
James. 1988. Hunting for Hindman: (an exercise in the use of the vernacular.
Appalachian Heritage 21.13-14.
Stuart,
Jesse. 1959. Up the branch. This is the South, ed. by Robert West Howard.
pp. 221-28. Chicago: Rand McNally. Comments on speech by the novelist.
Stubbs,
Thomas M. 1959-70. Mountain-wise. Georgia Magazine. Thirteen selections
of monthly column deal with language use in North Georgia mountains.
Sutherland,
E. J. 1960. Folk speech on frying pan. Mountain Life and Work 36.11-14.
Surveys features of Southern Appalachian speech, which author believes
is full of "corruptions" and "mispronunciations."
Thomas,
Jean. 1945. The changing mountain folk. American Mercury 61.43-49. [East
Kentucky]. Popular account of mountain life with many citations of
Appalachian speech.
Thomas,
Mildred Frances, ed. n.d. Provincial speech. It used to be: the memories
of Bascom Lamar Lunsford. Pp. 156-79. Privately printed.
Thompson,
Lawrence S. 1956. Names in Kentucky. Kentucky tradition, pp. 175-
81. Hamden, CT: Shoe String Press. Discusses personal and place names and
remarks on region's vocabulary.
Thornborough,
Laura. 1937. The Great Smoky mountains. Knoxville: University of Tennessee
Press. Revised edition 1962. [East Tennessee]. Pp. 24-25, brief discussion
of neologisms and Shakespearianisms of Smoky Mountains.
Toon,
Thomas E. 1982. Appalachian English. English as a world language, ed. by
Manfred Gorlach and Richard W. Bailey, pp. 239-45. Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan Press. Exemplifies phonological and grammatical features
of Southern Appalachian speech, based on Wolfram and Christian study.
Tresidder,
Argus. 1937. The speech of the Shenandoah Valley. American Speech 12.284-88.
[Western Virginia]. Surveys earlier work on Virginia speech; notes on phonology
and lexicon.
Tye,
Billy. 1946. Our time-flavored speech. Notes from the Pine Mountain Settlement
School 19.1.3. [Kentucky]. Examples of dialect.
Underhill,
David. 1975. Yukking it up at CBS. Southern Exposure 2.4.68-71. Says
that network television systematically undercovers news from Appalachia
and that network news personnel harbor prejudices against mountain and
Southern accents which lead them not to take seriously stories reported
with those accents.
Underhill,
David. 1975. A report on CBS news and 17 million Appalachian people. Mountain
Review 1.2.1-3. Expansion of preceding item; says network prejudice
against Appalachian accents and people is consistent with economic
paternalism in region.
Van
Nest, R. J. 1976. Gillis ridge. Appalachian Journal 3.307-10. [Northeast
Tennessee]. Semifictional account discussing how linguistic behavior
fits into mountain culture; claims that in sound and pace of mountain
speech "there is reaffirmation of the manner of their life."
Walker,
Raphy S. 1939. A mountaineer looks at his own speech. Tennessee Folklore
Society Bulletin 5.1-13. [East Tennessee]. Discusses Smoky Mountain
vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (with anecdotal account
of the drawl), with five pages of transcriptions.
Weaver,
Jack. 1993. Sociolinguistics of Scotch-Irish speech in Appalachia. Irish
Studies Working Papers 93.12-19.
Weeks,
Abigail E. 1921. The speech of the Kentucky mountaineer as I know it. New
York: Teachers College, Columbia University thesis. 21 pp. Discusses
origin of mountain people and their speech and how mountaineers' speech
habits reflect their culture and ways of thinking.
Wentworth,
Harold. 1936. The mapping of American speech. Philological Papers 1.49-53.
Relates West Virginia to Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada.
West,
John Foster. 1966. Dialect of the Southern Mountains. North Carolina Folklore
14.31-34. [Western North Carolina]. Reminiscences of folksy mountain
speech by former resident.
West,
Roy Andre. 1922. The songs of the mountaineers. Nashville: George Peabody
College thesis. Brief comments on relic, mostly lexical, forms.
Westover,
J. Hutson. 1960. Highland language of the Cumberland coal country. Mountain
Life and Work 36.18-21. [Kentucky]. Compilation of archaic vocabulary and
pronunciations from 17th century to present, based on personal observation
in physician's clinic and on other writers.
Whitener,
Rogers. 1981. Selections from "Folk-ways and folk-speech."North Carolina
Folklore Journal 29.1. Mountain sayings, pp. 19-20;Appalachian place
names, pp. 39-40;Mountain speech, pp. 40-42;Folk speech, pp. 43-44; Academic
lore and "ferry dittles," pp. 60-61. Short essays on aspects of W North
Carolina mountain speech.
Williams,
Cratis D. 1961. The content of mountain speech. Mountain Life and
Work 37.13-17 (Winter). Says mountain speech does have "strong language,
sparkling with proverbial wisdom, sparkling with pleonasms, powerful metaphors,
and vivid similes, abounding with archaisms," but that it is not, contrary
to some literary treatments, qualitatively different from other varieties
of American folk speech.
Williams,
Cratis D. 1961. Rhythm and melody in mountain speech. Mountain Life
and Work 37.7-10 (Fall). Cites features of grammar, diction, and rhetoric
of mountain speech. Reprinted in Bobbs-Merrill Reprint Series, Language-100.
Williams,
Cratis D. 1962. Mountaineers mind their manners. Mountain Life and
Work 38.19-25 (Summer). Discusses manners and civilities of mountain
speech behavior by a native.
Williams,
Cratis D. 1967. Subtlety in mountain speech. Mountain Life and Work 43.14-16
(Spring). Says mountaineer "possesses subtleties in emphasis and traditional
tricks in turning phrases in basic English that enable him to express himself
colorfully" and presents his translation of five literary selections into
mountain dialect to demonstrate this.
Williams,
Cratis D. 1968. Mountain speech. Language and culture: a reader, ed. by
Patrick Gleeson and Nancy Wakefield, pp. 151-60. Columbus, OH: Charles
E. Merrill. Revision of items 1.808 and 5.241.
Williams,
Cratis D. 1978. Appalachian speech. North Carolina Historical Review
55.174-79. Provides overview of Southern Appalachian pronunciation
and grammar and presents folk tale in modified orthography to reflect
these features.
Williams,
John Rodger. 1985. Appalachian migrants in Cincinnati, Ohio: the role of
folklore in the reinforcement of ethnic identity. Appalachian speech
style, pp. 55-85. Bloomington: Indiana University dissertation.
Wilson,
Charles Morrow. 1930. Beefsteak when I'm hungry. Virginia Quarterly
Review 6.240-50. Layman's observations of English of Southern mountains.
Wilson,
George P., ed. 1952. Folk speech. The Frank C. Brown collection of North
Carolina folklore, pp. 505-618. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. List
of more than 1,500 items including pronunciations, unusual meanings,
names, and grammatical usages (frequently compared to British dialectal
or literary usages), figurative expressions, humorous rhymes, dance calls,
salutations and replies, and unusual interpretations of scripture,
culled by Wilson from the folklorist Brown's collection of notes on the
English language as used in North Carolina.
Wilson,
Gypsy Vera. 1937. Language. Folklore in Southeastern Kentucky, pp. 6-38.
Nashville: George Peabody College thesis. [Bell County, Kentucky].
Surveys archaisms, names, pronunciations, and proverbial expressions,
and investigates familiarity of list of latter in Blount County, Tennessee.
Wolfram,
Walt. 1977. On the linguistic study of Appalachian speech. Appalachian
Journal 5.92-102. History of study of Appalachian speech, assessment of
current knowledge, and statement of future prospects and needs for research;
extensive bibliography.
Wolfram,
Walt. 1977. Language assessment in Appalachia: a sociolinguistic perspective.
Appalachian Journal 4.224-34. Guidelines for testing language ability
of Appalachian children and for using and interpreting results of standardized
tests.
Wolfram,
Walt. 1980. Beyond black English: implications of the Ann Arbor decision
for other nonmainstream varieties. Reactions to Ann Arbor: vernacular black
English and education, ed. by Marcia Farr Whiteman, pp. 10-23. Arlington,
VA: Center for Applied Linguistics. Discusses linguistic, sociolinguistic,
and educational parallels between Black English and other varieties of
American English and implications of Ann Arbor "Black English case" for
dealing with and testing speakers of these varieties, especially speakers
of Appalachian speech.
Wolfram,
Walt. 1983. Text interpretation and sociolinguistic differences. Topics
in Language Disorders 3.21-34. Discusses evaluation of standardized tests
of Appalachian and Black Vernacular English speakers.
Wolfram,
Walt. 1984. Is there an "Appalachian English"-Appalachian Journal
11.215-24. Outlines stages in study of Appalachian speech and discusses
difficulty of defining "Appalachian English" and other dialects on
objective basis but concludes tentatively that it can be characterized
by a unique "set of co-occurring structures."
Wolfram,
Walt. 1986. Black-white dimensions in sociolinguistic test bias. Language
variety in the South: perspectives in black and white, ed. by Michael
Montgomery and Guy Bailey, pp. 373-85. University: University of Alabama
Press. Explores levels on which sociolinguistic differences may be reflected
in standardized tests and in testing situations for speakers of Vernacular
Black English or Southern Appalachian English and relationship of
these levels to issues of educational equity.
Wolfram,
Walt, and Donna Christian. 1975. Sociolinguistic variables in Appalachian
dialects. Final report, National Institute of Education grant number 74-0026.
Eric Document 112 687. 413 pp. Published as following item.
Wolfram,
Walt, and Donna Christian. 1976. Appalachian speech. Arlington, VA:
Center for Applied Linguistics. viii + 190 pp. Eric Document 150 811. [129
speakers, all ages, Mercer and Monroe Counties, Southern West Virginia].
Detailed sociolinguistic analysis of rural Appalachian speech, presenting
a sociolinguistic framework for study of Appalachian English, focusing
on phonological aspects (final consonant clusters, contraction, pronunciation
of initial segments, etc.) and grammatical features of verbs, adverbs,
negation, nominals, prepositions, and indirect questions, and discussing
educational implications of dialect diversity in region; includes interview
questionnaire and sample interview. Reviews:R. R. Butters. 1979. Language
55.460-62;J. Coady. 1973. Language Sciences 28.27-28;M. Montgomery. 1982.
American Speech 57.134-39;R. Payne. 1977. Journal of English Linguistics
11.83-92.
Wolfram,
Walt, and Donna Christian. 1977. The language frontier in Appalachia. Appalachian
Notes 5.33-41. Also in Mountain Review 3.2.1-5 (1977). Essay on variation
and change in mountain speech, attitudes toward it, and implications for
teachers.
Wolfram,
Walt, and Donna Christian. 1980. On the application of sociolinguistic
information: test evaluation and dialect differences in Appalachia. Standards
and dialects in English, ed. by Timothy Shopen and Joseph M. Williams,
pp. 177-212. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop. Application of findings from sociolinguistic
research in West Virginia to taking and evaluation of standardized tests
of "correct" language use; discusses four principles of test evaluation
and how they should be applied. Appendix A: Some grammatical characteristics
of Appalachian English, 205-09; Appendix B, Two illustrative narratives
from West Virginia, 210-12.
Wolfram,
Walt, and Ralph W. Fasold. 1974. The study of social dialects in American
English. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 239 pp. Surveys social dialect
patterns in U.S. based on sociolinguistic studies and comparing many patterns
of Southern American pronunciation and grammar to those of social groups
and regions elsewhere in country. Reviews:T. K. Crowl. 1976. Journal of
Communication 26.151-53;J. L. Dillard. 1975. Language in Society 4.367-75;D.
E. Eskey. 1976. College English 37.718-23;R. I. McDavid, Jr. and R. K.
O'Cain. 1977. American Anthropologist 79.947-48;S. M. Tsuzaki. 1975.
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages Quarterly 9.438-40;W.
Viereck. 1977. Studies in Linguistics 1.145-49;L. V. Zuck. 1976. Language
Learning 26.191-98.
Wood,
Gordon R. 1967. Sub-regional speech variation in vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation. Cooperative research project no. 3046 final report. Eric
Document 019 263. [33 natives of Alabama, East Tennessee, Northeast Mississippi,
Northwest Georgia]. Investigates degree of subregional homogeneity
in vocabulary, pronunciation, and sentence structure; finds generational
differences greatest in vocabulary and least in grammar.
Work
Projects Administration. 1939. Kentucky: a guide to the bluegrass state.
New York: Harcourt Brace. Pp. 89-90, on dialect.
Work
Projects Administration. 1939. Tennessee: a guide to the state. New York:
Viking Press. Pp. 134-35, notes on speech.
II.
HISTORICAL STUDIES
(Includes
items overlapping chapters III-XII below.)
Allen,
Edward A. 1899. You-uns. Nation 68.476 (June 22). Cites use of term in
Tyndale's New Testament translation (1525) and reports we-dem and
you-dem
in Lancaster County, Virginia.
Andrews,
Eliza F. 1896. Cracker English. Chatauquan 23.85-88. [Georgia]. Discusses
analogues of rural Southern white speech in Chaucer, Shakespeare,
and other British writers; derives cracker from corn cracker.
Ashby,
Rickie Zayne. 1976. Philosophical and religious language in early Kentucky
wills. Kentucky Folklore Record 22.2.3944. Typical religious
phrases used in 18th- and early 19th-century Kentucky wills.
Boyette,
Dora S. 1951. Variant pronunciations from Rockingham County, North Carolina,
1829-1860. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina thesis. xiii
+ 46 pp. [North Central North Carolina]. Analyzes variant pronunciations
of eight plantation overseers as reflected in their naive spellings in
monthly reports to the plantation owner.
Bradley,
William Aspenwall. 1915. In Shakespeare's America. Harper's 131.436-45.
Antiquated speech and other relics from Kentucky, where "the purest English
on earth" is spoken."
Bray,
Rose Altizer. 1950. Disappearing dialect. Antioch Review 10.279-88. Describes
mountaineers' English as Elizabethan; lists archaisms in phonology,
morphology, syntax, and lexicon.
Brewer,
Fisk P. 1873. Peculiar usages of English--observed in North Carolina. Nation
16.148-49. Comment from Chapel Hill on pronunciation and words; see
response (Nation 16.183).
Brown,
Calvin S. 1889. Dialectal survivals in Tennessee. Modern Language
Notes 4.205-09. Same as American Notes and Queries 4.16-18 (Nov. 9, 1889)
and 4.64-66 (Dec. 7, 1889). Thirty-nine forms found in Tennessee and
in Uncle Remus stories that are identical to forms in Shakespeare.
Brown,
Calvin S. 1891. Other dialectal forms in Tennessee. Publication of
the Modern Language Association 6.171-75. Same as American Notes and Queries
8.49-50 (Dec. 5, 1891); 8.62-63 (Dec. 12, 1891); 8.75 (Dec. 19, 1891).
Surveys phonological and lexical peculiarities of Tennessee speech
and compares them to Shakespeare, Pope, and William Bartlett.
Brown,
Calvin S. 1894. Dialectal survivals from Spenser. Dial 16.40. Comments
on nonstandard forms with long history.
Brown,
Calvin S. 1897. Dialectal survivals from Chaucer. Dial 22.139-41.
Compiles analogs of modern-day nonstandard forms in Chaucer; refers to
previous item.
Bruce,
J. Douglas. 1913. Terms from Tennesee. Dialect Notes 4.58.
Burt,
N. C. 1878. The dialects of our country. Appleton's Journal, new series
5.411-17. Survey of regional and local varieties of American English, with
special reference to settlement history, and emphasis on pronunciation
and vocabulary.
Carpenter,
Charles. 1929. The evolution of our dialect. West Virginia Review 7.9,28.
[West Virginia]. Discussion of dialect forms author says have passed from
currency within previous generation.
Carpenter,
Charles. 1934. Remnants of archaic English in West Virginia. West Virginia
Review 12.77-79,94-95. Discussion of archaisms with precedents
cited from Elizabethan drama and other British literary sources.
Catlett,
L. C. 1888. "We-uns" and "you-uns."Century 36.477-78. [Virginia]. Says
he has never heard forms in state, even though writers about Virginia put
them in mouths of their characters.
Chapman,
Maristan. 1929. American speech as practiced in the Southern highlands.
Century 117.617-23. Surveys characteristic Southern mountain speech
and compares it to earlier British usage.
Cleaves,
Mildred P. 1946. King's English reigns in the Kentucky knobs. In Kentucky
10.3.35. Brief defense of mountain speech, whose speakers are "linguistic
purists and sole custodians of His Majesty's diction as it was originally
enunciated."
Combs,
Josiah H. 1916. Old, early, and Elizabethan English in the Southern mountains.
Dialect Notes 4.283-97. [Appalachians from West Virginia to North Alabama].
Gives special attention to similarities between Appalachian and Shakespearean
forms. Reprinted in Appalachian Heritage 9.27-37.
Combs,
Josiah H. 1921. Early English slang survivals in the mountains of
Kentucky. Dialect Notes 5.115-17. Relic vocabulary from Old, Elizabethan,
and Irish English.
Combs,
Josiah H. 1921. First warrant issued in Breathitt County, Kentucky.
Dialect Notes 5.119-20. Short document containing naive spellings.
Combs,
Josiah H. 1976. Combs: a study in comparative philology and genealogy.
Pensacola, FL: Privately printed. Traces naming patterns in Combs family
since 18th century.
Combs,
Mona R. 1958. Archaic words used in North Eastern Kentucky. Morehead, KY:
Morehead State College thesis. iv + 60 pp. [Rowan County]. Compiles 679
words collected from older residents of county by high school students
in effort to compare vocabulary of Shakespeare with that of Kentucky mountains;
lists 100 Middle English words (pp. 56-59), and presents statisticl data
on informants' knowledge and use of them.
Crozier,
Alan. 1984. The Scotch-Irish influence on American English. American Speech
59.310-31. 5 maps. Discusses problems in making cross-Atlantic comparisons
and identifies thirty-three items used in Midland area of U.S. that reflect
influence of Scotch-Irish immigrants.
Dale,
Edward Everett. 1947. The speech of the pioneers. Arkansas Historical Quarterly
6.117-31. Place naming patterns, contributions from American Indians, and
development of "words, phrases, and expressions [i.e., for hunting, fishing,
social life, and food, terms for reproach and comparison] which [the pioneers]
themselves coined and which grew out of the incidents and experience of
their daily lives."Reprinted in W. K. McNeil, ed. 1984. The charm is broken:
readings in Arkansas and Missouri folklore, 48-58. Little Rock: August
House.
Dalton,
Alford Paul. 1936. Elizabethan left-overs in Allen County, Kentucky. Bowling
Green: Western Kentucky University thesis. 52 pp. Condensed in Bulletin
of the Kentucky Folklore Society, (Jan. 1938), 13-16. Discusses obsolete
words, pronunciations, grammatical features, meanings, and idioms.
den
Hollander, A. N. J. 1934. Uber die Bevolkerung der Appalachen. Zeitschrift
der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde 7/8.241-56.
Edson,
Rev. H. A., and Edith M. Fairchild. 1895. Tennessee mountains in word
lists. Dialect Notes 1.370-77. [Mountains areas of Tennessee, North Carolina,
Kentucky]. 145 words and phrases, fifteen exclamations, comments on grammar
and pronunciations.
Eggleston,
Edward. 1894. Folk-speech in America. Century Magazine 48.867-75. Points
out antiquity of folk usages and compares them to 16th-, 17th-, and 18th-century
British citations; scattered references to Southern usages.
Eliason,
Norman E. 1956. Tarheel talk: an historical study of the English language
in North Carolina to 1860. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
324 pp. Compendium of linguistic, historical, and cultural material from
unpublished letters, diaries, plantation books, church records, legal
papers, and other manuscripts in Southern Historical Collection at
Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill library. Surveys patterns of vocabulary,
grammar, and pronunciation, as well as language attitudes and language
variation, as revealed in these documents.
Reviews:W. Barritt. 1957. Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 65.375-76;D. E. Baughan. 1957. American Speech 32.283-86;M. Bryant. 1958.Midwest Folklore 8.53-56;R. Burchfield. 1958. Review of English Studies n.s. 9. 454;P. Christophersen. 1958. English Studies 39.183-85;H. Galinsky. 1958. Anglia 76.452-60;
III.
LEXICAL STUDIES