Study Guide
General Biology 102
FINAL EXAM
DATE: Monday, May 1,
2006; 3-5
PM;
COVERS: All
lecture notes, handouts and readings from this semester.
There will be 25 cumulative (review)
questions from the entire semester, and 50 questions on new material
covered during the last 3 weeks (after Exam #3).
This list is only a study guide, not a complete list of all the material on the test.
Office
hours: (Dead Week) Monday, Wednesday, Thursday & Friday 2:30-4:00
PM, Rm. 3324A
(Finals
Week) Monday
REVIEW
MATERIAL: 25 QUESTIONS ON TEST (2 points
each)
Domains and
Kingdoms
1. Review the three “domains”
of living things (Eukarya, Bacteria, Archaea), and what makes them different.
2. Review the four “kingdoms”
of eukaryotes (Plants, Animals, Fungi, and Protists),
and what makes them different. Focus on
cell structure and modes of nutrition (how do they get food or energy)? Focus on the three kingdoms that we studied
in class.
Cells &
Cell Structure
3. What are the differences
between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? Are
multi-celled organisms eukaryotes, prokaryotes, or
both?
4. What is an organelle, in
general, and what general purpose(s) do organelles serve? (Remember the one-room-school analogy from
class, or the refrigerator analogy—whichever you prefer.)
5. Know the organelles we have
studied in detail: mitochondria (why is the inner membrane so folded up, and why is that useful?
what occurs in the matrix vs. the inner membrane?), chloroplasts (what happens
in the stroma space vs. the thylakoid
membranes?).
6. Review cell surface
structures: cilia, microvilli. These are involved in organ function later.
7. Know the four “molecules of
life” (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids), and their general
functions in a living organism.
Metabolism,
Enzymes, and Energy
8. What is metabolism? How are metabolism, anabolism, and catabolism
related? Define them. How do these
relate to energy and ATP? What do they
do to molecules—make them or break them?
9. The “metabolic pathways” we
studied in class were photosynthesis and respiration. Which one is an example of anabolism vs.
catabolism? Why?
10. Write out an equation for
ATP breakdown, and one for ATP synthesis.
How is energy involved?
11. What is an enzyme, and what
does it do? What properties are typical
of enzymes?
12. Electrons lose energy as
they pass through electron transport chains—where does the energy go? We encountered electron transport chains in
both photosynthesis and respiration—how did they “store” energy and how was it
used later? (Hint: review ATP synthase.)
Glycolysis,
Cellular Respiration, and Fermentation
13. Overall, what do glycolysis,
the Krebs cycle, and electron transport do?
(Know starting materials and products, but don’t worry about precise
numbers.) Explain very briefly how
energy stored in glucose is converted into energy stored in ATP. Where are oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose,
water, and ATP involved, and how do they relate to each other?
14. Can cellular respiration use
foods other than glucose to make ATP?
Which ones?
15. When is fermentation used
instead of cellular respiration? How
does this apply to humans?
16. What is ATP synthase do? Compare
its location and function in cellular respiration vs. photosynthesis.
17. How are oxygen and carbon
dioxide related to the function of the mitochondria? Why do we REALLY need to breathe? (Hint:
where does CO2 come from?
Where is O2 used?)
Viruses
18. Describe the general structure
of a virus, including protein, nucleic acids, and lipids as appropriate.
19. How do viruses use their
host cells? Why do they need host cells?
20. Why are viruses hard to
“cure” with drugs, unlike bacteria?
21. What is a prion? What famous disease is caused by prions? How is a prion disease different from a virus?
Prokaryotes: Archaea and Bacteria
22. What 3 general shapes are seen in bacteria?
What names are given to them?
What shape would you expect to see in a bacterium named “Streptococcus”?
23. How do antibiotics
work? Describe where you would find them
in nature, and what their role is.
(Example: a fungus produces penicillin—how
does this benefit the fungus?)
Fungi
24. How do fungi get their
food? Compare this to plants and
animals. What’s a mycelium? (Your answer should include its purpose as
well as its structure.)
25. What are dikaryotic
cells? These are unique to fungi. Briefly describe how fungi reproduce.
26. Describe how fungi and
plants interact through mycorrhizae. Are these beneficial or harmful interactions?
Plant Groups
and Life Cycles
27. Review the 4 major groups of
plants: mosses (bryophytes), seedless vascular (ferns), gymnosperms (pines),
angiosperms (flowering plants). What anatomical
features make each of these groups unique?
Give an example of each type.
28. How is plant reproduction
different from human reproduction?
Compare our reproduction (involving sperm and eggs) to plant
reproduction (involving alternation of generations, spores, and eggs and
sperm) Briefly describe the life cycle
of any plant, in general. (Use
the sheet from class.)
29. Where do you find the male
and female gametes (sperm and egg) in a flowering plant?
30. What is a seed, and what two
main things does it contain? HINT: A germinating seed uses a lot of energy… but
it can’t do photosynthesis yet. Where
does the energy come from.
Plant Tissues
31. Review the types of tissues
in plants: vascular tissue (xylem and
phloem), ground tissue, epidermal tissue.
32. Compare xylem and
phloem: what is transported? What direction? Are cells alive or dead?
33. What is transpiration, and
why is it important?
34. Know what meristems are, and why they are important. How does a tree grow taller vs. wider?
35. Explain why trees have “rings”
for each year of growth. What kind of
tissue is this (xylem or phloem)? Related
question: Why can a tree live for years
with a rotten core, but die quickly from a shallow cut from a weed-eater?
Photosynthesis: Light(-dependent)
Reactions and (Light-independent)
36. Review the two parts of
photosynthesis: light-dependent
reactions and Calvin Cycle (light-independent reactions). Where in the chloroplast do they occur? Know the starting materials and products of
both processes, including oxygen, carbon dioxide, sugar, ATP, water, NADPH. Which one provides energy, and which one uses
it?
37. Why is oxygen produced by
photosynthesis? (Where does the oxygen
come from?)
38. Plants carry out respiration
as well as photosynthesis. Why do they
need respiration, and where does it occur?
Animal Kingdom
39. Know the 9 “phyla” of
animals discussed in class and in your book.
Be able to classify these examples: lobsters, butterflies, ants,
starfish, jellyfish, human beings, fish, earthworms.
40. Do all animals have
tissues? What IS a tissue?
Tissues, Organ
Systems, and Homeostasis
41. Define tissue, organ, and
organ system.
42. Know the 4 types of tissues,
what they look like, and how/where they are used in the body.
43. What is homeostasis? Review the definition in your textbook.
44. Compare negative-feedback
regulation and positive-feedback regulation.
(We might also have called these “negative/positive control systems” in
class.)
Endocrine
System
45. Review the locations of the
endocrine glands: hypothalamus,
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, testes/ovaries, and pancreas. Which ones control calcium balance? What about glucose levels?
46. How are hormone signals
carried to their “target” cells? (Hint:
how are these signals different from nervous system signals?)
Nervous System
47. Review the structure of a
neuron.
48. What’s the difference
between an action potential and a neurotransmitter? Which one is used within a neuron, vs. at a
synapse between two cells? When a drug affects
your nervous system, which signal does it usually interfere with?
49. Compare the speed of nerve
signals vs. endocrine signals.
50. What is myelin, and what
effect does it have on nerve signals?
51. How do reflexes occur?
52. What are the roles of your
sympathetic vs. parasympathetic nervous systems?
NEW
MATERIAL: 50 QUESTIONS ON TEST (2 points
each)
Circulatory
System
53. Describe the sizes and
locations of venules, veins, arteries, arterioles,
and capillaries. What tissues are used
to construct arteries vs. capillaries, and why?
54. Which types of blood vessels
are leaky, and how does this support their function?
55. Describe the roles of blood
vs. interstitial fluid in gas exchange and nutrient transport. How do nutrients from your digestive system
(or oxygen from your lungs) get to the cells deep in muscle tissue?
56. Know how arteries, veins,
and the heart are arranged in the systemic and pulmonary systems.
57. What function do valves
serve in blood vessels? What about in
the heart?
58. Which is under higher
pressure: veins or arteries? Why?
How do their structures reflect this?
59. Review the general
connection between arteries/veins and your heart. (Which ones deliver vs. transport fluid? Where do you find valves, and why?)
60. Which side of the heart
serves the body? What about the
lungs? Why is the left side of your
heart larger?
61. What is the function of your
body’s natural “pacemaker”? How does
this interact with your nervous system?
62. Describe the events that
occur when your heart beats—when do atria vs. ventricles contract? Do the two sides of the heart beat
together? What events are triggered by
the pacemaker? (Hint: consult diagrams
in your textbook.)
Blood
63. Describe the types of blood
cells and their functions. What is
plasma? How does it exchange nutrients
with interstitial fluid?
64. Where are blood cells
formed? Include stem cells in your
explanation.
65. What is hemoglobin? What conditions favor the binding of oxygen
to hemoglobin? What conditions favor its
release? How does this relate to
conditions found in active muscles (heat, low/acidic pH, low concentration of
oxygen…)?
66. How does a blood clot form?
Lymphatic
System
67. Describe the lymphatic
system. What are its functions? Relate these functions to the circulatory
system, the immune system, and the digestive system.
68. What would happen to your
body if the lymphatic system didn’t collect fluids that escape from your
circulatory system?
69. Briefly describe the
functions of lymph nodes vs. vessels, the thymus, and the spleen.
70. How are lymphatic vessels
similar to veins? Do they ever connect
to veins? (Where?)
Immune System
and Other Defenses
71. What non-specific defenses
help to prevent infection? How is a
“non-specific” defense different from a “specific” defense?
72. Describe the roles of
complement, cilia (in lungs), and phagocytes.
How are these non-specific defenses?
73. Describe the inflammatory
response. Describe why and how this
happens, and how it helps the body heal and prevent or repair damage. How is histamine related?
74. How is the immune system
(and inflammation) related to allergies?
75. What’s an antigen? How does your immune system recognize it?
76. Know the difference between
B cells, killer T cells, and helper T cells.
What do they do?
77. Describe how the immune
system responds to an infection. How are
the right antibodies and cells produced?
78. Why do lymph nodes sometimes
swell when you’re sick?
79. Compare antibodies and
T-cell receptors.
80. What is MHC (also called
“self protein”)? What two functions does
it serve in your body?
81. Explain why you don’t tend
to get sick with the exact same virus twice. (Consider immune “memory,” and
primary vs. secondary response in your answer.)
82. How does a vaccine take
advantage of the secondary immune response?
Respiratory
System
83. Review the parts of your
respiratory system: trachea, bronchi
(bronchus), alveoli.
84. How is the respiratory
system of insects different from that of humans? Consider the structure of the respiratory
system AND the circulatory system in your answer; see your book for good
diagrams.
85. How many layers of cells
must be crossed for gases to escape from the blood (inside a capillary) into
the air inside your lungs?
86. How are differences in
concentration involved in oxygen and carbon dioxide transport? If the level of oxygen is 140 mm Hg in your
lungs and 40 mm Hg in your blood, which way should the oxygen flow? Is this a normal condition?
87. How is the diaphragm
involved in breathing? Is muscle
contraction (and energy use!) needed for inhalation, exhalation, or both?
88. How is carbon dioxide
transported in your circulatory system?
How does that relate to the pH of blood?
89. What is the function of
cilia and mucus in your lungs?
90. More questions may be
posted, depending on class coverage. Use
the “non-credit” self-tests in the homework folder to check your understanding.
Kidney
Function and the Urinary System
91. Why does nitrogen-containing
waste need to be disposed of so carefully?
What kinds of animals use urea, uric acid, or ammonia? Urea and uric acid take a lot of energy to
produce… why is this energy spent to make a waste product—what’s the
benefit?
92. Know the structure of a nephron and the capillaries surrounding it. Know the location and function of the loop of
Henle, collecting duct, renal pelvis, and ureter.
93. Explain filtration,
re-absorption, and secretion. What sorts
of substances are filtered out of blood, and how does this occur? What is re-absorbed by the body? What is secreted?
94. How does re-absorption of
salt aid the reabsorption of water by the kidney?
95. What is anti-diuretic
hormone, and what does it do? How does
alcohol interfere with it?
96. What is a diuretic? Know some examples.
97. More questions may be
posted, depending on class coverage. Use
the “non-credit” self-tests in the homework folder to check your understanding.
Digestive
System
98. Why does food need to be
broken down by enzymes?
99. Where are fats, proteins,
and sugars digested? Some may be
digested in more than one location.
Review the organs of your digestive system.
100.
What are the functions of the small intestine and large intestine, and
how are they different?
101.
Describe how the structure of the small intestine helps absorb
nutrients.
102.
If excess water remains in the large intestine, is the result diarrhea
or constipation? Where should this water
have been absorbed?
103.
More questions may be posted, depending on class coverage. Use the “non-credit” self-tests in the
homework folder to check your understanding.
Muscular and
Skeletal System
104.
Questions will be posted soon, depending on class coverage.